Water Quality Blog Post

Turbidity

     Definition: Deficiency or lack of clarity, (in this case, of the water).
     Impact on Stream Health: Turbidity affects the amount of sunlight that reaches the
bottom of the stream. If the turbidity is high, not much sunlight reaches the plants and
organisms that thrive in the stream and they suffocate and die. With high turbidity, dissolved
oxygen increases and hardly anything can grow in the water, decreasing its biodiversity and
overall health.

Temperature

     Definition: How warm or cool an object or surface is.
     Impact on Stream Health: Temperature is an important measurement to make because
it helps to further understanding about dissolved oxygen, pH and conductivity levels.
Temperature influences the amount and diversity of life in water. The aquatic growth process is
similar to the seasonal process that happens every spring in regions that experience four
seasons. There’s not much life and growth during the winter, but when spring comes, there is a
rapid growth rate to just about every living thing in the area. Therefore, water temperature
dictates the amount and type of species that live in a stream. A median temperature would be
ideal for the most diverse streams, but it depends on the type of species that are resident to
stream to determine its health. The temperature is necessary to measure in order to determine
what kind of species can live and thrive in a stream.

pH

     Definition: The measurement of how acidic or basic a substance is according to the pH
scale.
     Impact on Stream Health: In regards to stream health, pH measures the acidic content
of the water. pH strongly influences what organisms can live in a specific body of water and the
slightest change in pH could have severe effects on the quality of the water and its residents.
Some organisms, like salamanders, frogs and other amphibians, can be troubled by high pH
levels. Some streams may have a more unbalanced pH level because of human influences from
chemicals in mining materials and fertilizers. Overall, pH is necessary to measure because it can
identify the health of local organisms which can be used to determine a stream’s water quality.

Dissolved Oxygen

     Definition: The amount of oxygen molecules dissolved in a body of water.
     Impact on Stream Health: Much like temperature and pH, the dissolved oxygen
level shows what kind of organisms can live in a specific body of water. Conversely, the
types of organisms living in the water also determine the dissolved oxygen levels. A
good example of this would be plants photosynthesizing underwater and releasing
oxygen into the water, just as they would do if they were on land releasing oxygen into
the air. Dissolved oxygen is a very important measurement because it is a main factor in
almost all of the other measurements; nitrate samples, temperature readings, and the
health conditions of organisms living in the water, both flora and fauna (BMIs).
Therefore, dissolved oxygen levels tell us more than the amount of dissolved oxygen in
the water; it grants researchers more knowledge about the creek’s health overall in
many areas.

Nitrates

     Definition: Inorganic form of the element nitrogen that is an essential nutrient
for the growth and reproduction of many algae and various aquatic flora.
     Impact on Stream Health: Nitrates almost act as plant food. They provide “food”
for the plants and algae in the stream. Nitrates play an important role in the growth of
plants in a stream: if there isn’t much of a nitrate presence, the plants in the stream
won’t grow bigger because they can no longer grow or reproduce. However, if the
nitrate level is too high, eutrophication, or the process of enriching the water, occurs.
Eutrophication can happen when there is too much nitrogen and plants produce too
much, light struggles to reach the plants from the sun because the stream’s surface is
covered too much by plants and algae, and, eventually, the plants die due to lack of
sunlight. It is also an indicator of dissolved oxygen levels, which are important to know
when drawing conclusions about the stream’s health.

Conductivity

     Definition: How well a body of water can conduct an electrical current.
     Impact on Stream Health: Knowing the conductivity of a stream will help to
researchers understand the amount of total dissolved solids (or TDSs) that are floating
around. The more conductive a stream is, the more TDSs there are that could be
preventing further or less growth.

Alkalinity

     Definition: Water’s ability to neutralize acids.
     Impact on Stream Health: A stream’s alkalinity level is important to measure
because it’s related to pH measurements, which can help prove or disprove the stream’s
appropriate spot on the pH scale. Finding out the alkalinity level will help to answer the
question of, “how well can this stream keep a healthy balance of acid and base?”
because it show how well, or poorly, a body of water neutralizes to acids.

E-Coli

     Definition: Indicator species that can be found in streams and inside of warm
blooded animals, including humans.
     Impact on Stream Health: E-coli is can be a dangerous thing to mess around
with, but is has good potential in helping researchers find out a stream’s condition
through the point of view of a bug. E-coli itself isn’t too dangerous, but reveals other
serious health risks in other organisms.

Against Mountaintop Removal Blog

                 Mountaintop removal is a very controversial issue throughout Appalachia. Even though money is made because of the coal mined from mountaintop removal operations, it’s quite costly to the environment and all who live in and around it.

                The most obvious issue with mountaintop removal is the damage done to the environment. It hurts the local ecosystem, meaning it harms tiny insects, all the way up to behemoth trees and animals. These resident species must move to other habitats and adapt to a different environment.

                Creeks and streams can be destroyed by the overburden (or the unused part of the mountain) and water supplies can be contaminated from the chemicals from runoff mining operations.

                In order to access coal inside of mountains, mining operators have to blast the top of the mountain off in order to reach the coal. Blasting can cause major disturbances and potential damage to local homes or property and roads that may come close to the mining site. The damage isn’t limited to the mining site and its vicinity. The coal consumption process that mountaintop removal enables can also harm the environment, such as coal dust that can cover roads, buildings and surrounding foliage. Coal dust can also cause health related problems, especially those with preexisting conditions like asthma. In more extreme cases, miners who work in the mines for most of their lives can develop black lung, which is caused by long exposure to coal dust.

                Mountaintop removal, though profitable and helpful for energy production, the environmental and health effects are more harmful than the positive effects of energy production and profit.

http://ilovemountains.org/

Positive Aspects of Mountaintop Removal Mining

                Mountaintop removal is a very controversial issue, especially in the Appalachia regions. Even though disputed, mountaintop removal can be beneficial for several reasons.

                For starters, mountaintop removal mining is safer and more efficient than other underground mining techniques. Instead of sending miners inside of mountains that can collapse, explode from the inside or even suffocate miners, mountaintop removal mining stays on the outside of the mountain and retrieves it from the outside. It’s also more efficient because it’s easier to transport the coal from outside of the mine than extracting it underground and then moving it out. This requires more time, equipment and ultimately, money.

                It seems that the biggest problem with mountaintop removal is the environmental damage that is done to the mountain’s ecosystem. However, nature has been able to adapt to any situation it’s been given and it happens every day. After the operation, the companies in charge are required to restore the site as close to its former state as possible. The illusion that coal companies care nothing for the environment is not true. By law, they are supposed to do their best to restore the mountain to its former glory and most of the companies make a very conscious effort to do so.

                For the people who live in Appalachia, coal is their way of life. Without it, their lives and communities would experience more unemployment and some towns may even start to become abandoned as they have for the past fifty to sixty years. Coal mining is essential for the prosperity of these people by providing funds and making room for public buildings like libraries and schools. It also provides tax revenue for businesses to come in and improve the area economically.  

                Even though the mountaintop removal process may be hard to look at and endure at the beginning and middle stages, the results and effects of mountaintop removal mining benefit many people throughout the region over long periods of time. The mountaintops are restored to their former glory and the local communities benefit economically from it.

Golf course on top of mountaintop removal site.

 

 

http://www.williamsondailynews.com/view/full_story/2466633/article-Officials--Mountain-top-land-useful-after-mining

Support for Miners Essay

Around the turn of the 20^th century, the Industrial Revolution and influx of immigration were dramatically changing the lives of all Americans. The nation was growing and it demanded more power. That’s where coal comes in. During this time, monopolies began to sprout up and take any advantages possible to get ahead. The behavior and reactions of the owners and miners exemplifies the tension the two groups had with each other during this time period. The miners, in this situation, are who I sympathize with because of the dangerous work conditions, poor treatment by owners, and the lack of benefits they deserve in a very dangerous field of work.

                To begin with, the safety and health conditions related to the average coal mine in the early 20^th century were inadequate at best. Perhaps the technology wasn’t all there, but regardless, gas leaks, explosions and roof falls were not unheard of in mining communities. One statistic claims that 1,000 miners died every year around the turn of the century. Coal mining also has dangerous long-term effects. Black lung, a disease caused by long exposure to coal dust, affected scores of miners and still does to this day.

                Next, owners did not treat their workers well, especially for the job miners had to do every day for most of their lives. It’s even been said that donkeys were more valuable than miners because donkeys cost more to replace than human beings! Furthermore, owners did not lend an ear to the miners, unless force was used. This is why strikes like the Anthracite coal strike in Pennsylvania and the Ludlow Massacre in Colorado happened. Federal troops had to be called into Pennsylvania to help calm things down and get a deal settled before the huge demand for coal arrived with winter. The strike at Ludlow turned into more than a peaceful demonstration: company guards, armed with machine guns, and miners fought fiercely. In the end, when President Woodrow Wilson sent troops to the scene, 40 people were dead, including women and children, and many others wounded. Even though miners would win in the end of both strikes, they did not come easily.

                Finally, miners received nothing besides their normal wages in any situation, including worker’s compensation, sick days or vacation days. Benefits were not around then. If a miner were to get injured on the job, which was common, he didn’t receive extra money or time off to have medical treatment or recovery time. The situation is the same if he was to fall ill and couldn’t work. If you didn’t work, you didn’t get paid, no matter what the reason. The miners, who had one of the most dangerous jobs in America at the time, had to start from square one to be eligible for the benefits they deserved.

                If someone were to look back at the history of coal mining in the United States, he or she would be very appreciative of the rights that workers in all fields can appreciate today. Even though owners were in charge of their own company, the workers were, and still are today, the force behind its business. This is something that the monopolies and millionaires learned the hard way through strikes and worsening public opinion. In the end, miners have played a huge role in achieving the average worker in America the rights and liberties he or she deserves.

Coal Camp Blog Post

Location/Coalfield

 

The site is located in the Winding Gulf coal field in Wyoming County in southern West Virginia.

 

Demographics

 

As of the 2010 census, 1,559 people live in town. The town has a good balance between older and younger residents, with the median age being about 42 years old, but it leans more on the side of being an older community.

 

Coal Companies in Town

 

-Whitesville A&S Coal Company

- Elite Consulting Company

 

Important Dates

-          1912: Mullens founded

-          1929: W.V. State Legislature grants a charter to Mullens

-          Turn of the Century: Railroads are constructed (Virginia Railway in 1909)

-          Virginia Railway merges with Norfolk and Western Railway (later to be renamed Norfolk Southern)

-          1993: National Register of Historic Places lists the Mullens Historic District.

-          2001: A flash flood devastates the community, forcing many residents and business to leave the struggling town.

JFK on the campaign trail in Mullens, W.V.



Underground Mining Methods

Drift Mining

This type of mining is one of the earliest coal mining techniques. Drift mining is done when the coal seam is at the same elevation as the outside is so miners can simply enter the mine without having to go down shafts. It can be used when the coal seam intersects the surface while the mine layout follows a horizontal direction with the coal. 

 

Advantages:

-         Cheapest way to mine.

-         Doesn’t demand much machinery.

-         Less effort is needed to reach the coal.

Disadvantages:

-         Coal located below the drift cannot be accessed using this method only.

-         Tunnels could collapse and trap miners inside.

 

Simple Drift Mine Diagram

Shaft Mining

            When coal is not accessible through drift mining, shaft mining is used. Shaft mining is used when coal is located well below the surface and must be accessed by going deep underground, sometimes 1000 feet or more. Working elevators are placed into shafts and extend down to the same level as the coal seam. One shaft is used for the transportation of miners and their equipment and the other is used for the transferring of coal to the surface where it can be processed.

Shaft Mining Diagram

 

 

Advantages:

-         Coal found deeper in the Earth can be accessed.

-         Two elevator system moves coal and miners separately, saving time.

Disadvantages:

-         Can become expensive if coal is located deep in the earth.

-         Potentially dangerous because exit requires an elevator.

 

 

Room and Pillar Mining

            Room and pillar mining is used after shafts have been dug underground to transport miners to coal waiting to be mined. Once the miners and their equipment reach the coal, pillars of soft, bituminous coal hold up the roof of where the miners are working and the coal around them is extracted. This is not a safe and effective way to mine; roof falls are common due to the pillars “squeezing” and putting pressure on other pillars and the roof can collapse. Half of the coal in the mine must be left alone because it holds up the roof, making this mining method ineffective and unsafe.

Room and Pillar Mine

 

Advantages:

-         Manmade pillars don’t need to be transported down to the mines.

-         Mining areas can have a flat surface, making it easier to use machinery.

Disadvantages:

-         Dangerous due to soft, coal pillars holding up immense amounts of pressure above the mine.

-        Very inefficient; half of the coal must remain unused to provide support for the roof.

 

Continuous Mining

            Continuous mining is a mining method commonly used alongside drift and room and pillar mining with technological innovation added in. Heavy machinery is used to greatly increase mining efficiency. These machines are equipped with tungsten carbide teeth to capture many tons of coal in a small amount of time. Along with the mining machines, conveyor belts transfer the coal to its appropriate location after extraction. The technological advances make continuous mining much more economical than the traditional pick and shovel and donkey-pulled cart system.

 

Continous Mining Machine

 

Advantages:

-         More coal can be mined quicker with the use of the machines.

-         The job only requires one miner to operate the machinery, saving the company money and if an accident were to occur, only one miner could be harmed instead of many.

Disadvantages:

-         Room and pillar mining is still used in conjunction with continuous mining, which still leaves potential danger for roof collapses.

-         Machinery may be difficult to transport and upkeep in the mine, sometimes deep in the earth.

 

Longwall Mining

          Longwall mining is the most productive mining technique. This procedure uses a gargantuan machine that supports the roof above while steadily collecting all of the coal in its path. When finished, the machine retreats and the coal roof above falls. After the roof falls, the machine proceeds to pick up the remaining coal from the roof and is transported out. This is the most efficient way to mine due to all of the coal being mined, including the coal above, and none being left behind for support like in room and pillar mining.

 

 

Longwall Mining Machine with hydraulic roof

 

Advantages:

-         The most productive way to mine; no coal is left behind and can be done in less time.

-         Danger from roof falls are gone because of the machine’s hydraulic support system.

Disadvantages:

-         Large machines are not always reliable and may break down on occasion.

-         Costs to purchase and operate these machines may be out of range for some companies.

http://www.coalcampmemories.com/miningmethods.html

November and December Graphs

December Data

November Data


 

Aerosols, Urban Heat Island Effect and Greenhouse Gases Conclusion

Aerosols, the urban heat island effect and greenhouse gases all affect climate change in different ways. They all have their respective roles, but most data and scientists agree that the collective result is yet to be discovered. Despite this, we do have solid evidence and data of each of these effects which can be used to draw a conclusion that the effects caused by all of these factors balance each other out.

                The urban heat island effect is one of the pieces of evidence we do know about. The effect takes place when solar radiation, or sunlight, hits solid or dark surfaces and is absorbed. The heat from the sunlight is then reflected back at a longer wave length and heats up the area around it. The reemitted light turns into long wavelength infrared radiation.  Urban areas are warmer than rural areas because of the low albedo, or reflectivity, of the surfaces in cities like asphalt, concrete and other dark colored surfaces. Greenhouse gases trap the heat from the radiation and the heat stays on Earth and continues to heat it up as it has no way of escape.

The Formation of Coal

The formation of coal is a long process. The coal around the Appalachian region has formed from the remains of swamp plants that used to cover the area 300-400 million years ago. The plants became buried in the swamp, but didn’t rot due to the lack of oxygen. Instead of rotting, the dead plants formed into peat over very long periods of time.

 Peat doesn’t have a very high heat value and isn’t as valuable. Peat is not coal, but a precursor to it. Lignite is the next type of coal in the process. The carbon concentration is only at 30% and has a low heat value, yet it is still used to generate electrical power.  Over time with heat and pressure, the peat is converted into lignite and then into bituminous coal, the most common form. This type of coal has a highly variable carbon value and is coked for use in the steel industry. Bituminous coal can be used in factories to create electrical energy as well. Anthracite coal is different in regards to rock type: it’s metamorphic instead of sedimentary. It has the highest carbon content (85-95%) and the highest heat value. Finally, metallurgical coke is bituminous coal heated up to a temperature around 2,000 degrees Celsius in the absence of oxygen. With the extreme heat affecting it, water, tar, gas and other volatiles are taken away to leave a higher carbon fuel.

                That is how coal forms and the different types and stages of coal.

Aerosols and Climate Change

                 Aerosols can have a profound impact on climate change. Before diving into the details, aerosols and climate change need to be properly defined; climate change demonstrates the changes of normal weather patterns over a period of time while aerosols are tiny particles suspended in the air that come from both natural and man-made sources (NASA 1). Both of these terms can be connected when it comes to discussing Earth’s climate and how it is changing.

                Aerosols come from many different sources, both natural and man-made. Some sources of natural aerosols include sea spray from bodies of water, living vegetation, dust storms, forest and grassland fires and volcanoes (NASA 1). These aerosols are formed by the natural occurences of Earth’s activity. However, some aerosols are created by human activity through the alteration of natural surface cover and the burning of fossil fuels (NASA 1).

                When discussing climate change, aerosols are important to mention due to the fact that they can help to cool the Earth down, according to NASA (NASA 2). This is because the aerosols have a certain amount of albedo that reflect solar radiation from hitting Earth’s surface, therefore, keeping it from heating up (NASA 2). An easier way to look at it is thinking of a cloud. Aerosols play a crucial part in cloud formation; without them, there would be no clouds (NASA 2). The more aerosols that are in a cloud, the more time it takes for the cloud to clear up (NASA 2-3). As a result, the drop in temperature from the lack of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface brings climate change into the discussion.

                Evidence can also be found in the fact of the sea level rising (NCDC 2). According to the National Climatic Data Center, “the global mean sea level has been rising at an average rate of approximately 1.7 mm/ year over the past 100 years (measured from tide gauge observations)…”. The center also states that this rate is noticingly larger than the average rate several thousand years ago (NCDC 2). Perhaps because of the increased cloud coverage there is more rain, which goes into the oceans and fills them up more, causing higher sea levels.

                NASA claims that there is not enough information to make any substantial claims about the effects of aerosols on a global scale. Further research will need to be performed in order to find a more general and accurate answer the question of how much and where the aerosols are effecting Earth’s climate change the most.